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Carbon - Wikipedia. Carbon (from Latin: carbo "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. Google.is er í boði á þessu tungumáli: English. Allt um Google Google.com. © 2017. Stable isotope analysis of a medieval skeletal sample indicative of systemic disease. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS for windows. 98: 18: 3247: F. ![]() It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalentchemical bonds. Three isotopes occur naturally, 1. C and 1. 3C being stable, while 1. C is a radioactive isotope, decaying with a half- life of about 5,7. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.[1. Carbon, 6. CGraphite (left) and diamond (right), two allotropes of carbon. General properties. Pronunciation. KAR- bən. Allotropesgraphite, diamond. Appearancegraphite: blackdiamond: clear. Standard atomic weight(Ar)[7. Carbon in the periodic table. Atomic number(Z)6. Group, periodgroup 1. The isotope carbon-12 (12 C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on. Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff. Materials for infrared windows and domes. The shortest-lived isotope 4 −23 of lithium is. the output windows of X-ray tubes and other such apparatus. which make. than is molecular oxygen per se. Blockp- block. Element category polyatomic nonmetal, sometimes considered a metalloid. Electron configuration[He] 2s. Electrons per shell. Physical properties. Spectral linesPhase(at STP)solid. Sublimation point. K (3. 64. 2 °C, 6. F)Density(near r. Triple point. 46. K, 1. 0,8. 00 k. Pa[3][4]Heat of fusiongraphite: 1. J/mol. Molar heat capacitygraphite: 8. J/(mol·K)diamond: 6. J/(mol·K)Atomic properties. Oxidation states+4, +3,[5] +2, +1,[6]0, −1, −2, −3, −4[7] (a mildly acidic oxide)Electronegativity. Pauling scale: 2. Ionization energies. J/mol. 2nd: 2. 35. J/mol. 3rd: 4. 62. J/mol(more)Covalent radiussp. Van der Waals radius. Miscellanea. Crystal structuregraphite: simple hexagonal(black)Crystal structurediamond: face- centered diamond- cubic(clear)Speed of soundthin roddiamond: 1. C)Thermal expansiondiamond: 0. K) (at 2. 5 °C)[8]Thermal conductivitygraphite: 1. W/(m·K)diamond: 9. W/(m·K)Electrical resistivitygraphite: 7. Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[1. Magnetic susceptibility−5. Young's modulusdiamond: 1. GPa[8]Shear modulusdiamond: 4. GPa[8]Bulk modulusdiamond: 4. GPa[8]Poisson ratiodiamond: 0. Mohs hardnessgraphite: 1–2diamond: 1. CAS Number. 74. 40- 4. History. Discovery. Egyptians and Sumerians[1. BCE)Recognized as an element by. Antoine Lavoisier[1. Main isotopes of carbon. Wikidata. Carbon is the 1. Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of organic compounds, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 1. The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways, termed allotropes of carbon. The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon.[1. The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb "γράφειν" which means "to write"), while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity. Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials. All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metalcarbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil, and methane clathrates. Carbon forms a vast number of compounds, more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date,[1. For this reason, carbon has often been referred to as the "king of the elements".[1. Contents. Characteristics. Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon. The allotropes of carbon include graphite, one of the softest known substances, and diamond, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with suitable, multivalent atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all chemical compounds.[1. Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 1. MPa and 4,6. 00 ± 3. K (~4,3. 30 °C or 7,8. F),[3][4] so it sublimes at about 3,9. K.[2. 0][2. 1] Graphite is much more reactive than diamond at standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised pi system is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot concentrated nitric acid at standard conditions to mellitic acid, C6(CO2. H)6, which preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure.[2. Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5,8. K (5,5. 30 °C; 9,9. F). Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature. Carbon is the sixth element, with a ground- state electron configuration of 1s. Its first four ionisation energies, 1. J/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group 1. The electronegativity of carbon is 2. Carbon's covalent radii are normally taken as 7. C–C), 6. 6. 7 pm (C=C) and 6. C≡C), although these may vary depending on coordination number and what the carbon is bonded to. In general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order.[2. Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon- nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel: Fe. O4 + 4 C(s) → 3 Fe(s) + 4 CO(g)with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal- gas reaction: C(s) + H2. O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g). Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools. The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes: Allotropes. Atomic carbon is a very short- lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi- atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well- known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs,[2. Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as lonsdaleite (questionable),[3. As of 2. 00. 9, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.[3. The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes.[4. If successful, graphene could be used in the construction of a space elevator. It could also be used to safely store hydrogen for use in a hydrogen based engine in cars.[4. A large sample of glassy carbon. Geochemical Perspectives Letters - Late accretion history of the terrestrial planets inferred from platinum stable isotopes. J. B. Creech. 1,2. Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5- 7, 1. Copenhagen, Denmark. Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 Rue Jussieu, 7. Paris Cedex 0. 5, France. School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 9. Auckland, New Zealand. M. R. Handler. 4. School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 6. Wellington, New Zealand. J.- P. Lorand. 5. Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, CNRS UMR 6. Université de Nantes, 2 Rue de la Houssinière, BP 9. Nantes Cedex 3, France. Quadlab, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5- 7, 1. Copenhagen, Denmark. A. N. Wainwright. Laboratoire G- Time, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 5. Avenue F. D. Roosevelt, 1. Brussels, Belgium. Steinmann Institut für Geologie Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Rheinische Friedrich- Wilhems- Universität, 5. Bonn, Germany. F. Moynier. 2,9. 2. Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 Rue Jussieu, 7. Paris Cedex 0. 5, France. Institut Universitaire de France, 7. Paris, France. M. Bizzarro. 11. Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5- 7, 1. Copenhagen, Denmark. Affiliations | Corresponding Author | Cite as | Funding information. J. Creech. Email: creech@ipgp. Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5- 7, 1. Copenhagen, Denmark. Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 Rue Jussieu, 7. Paris Cedex 0. 5, France. School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 9. Auckland, New Zealand. School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 6. Wellington, New Zealand. Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, CNRS UMR 6. Université de Nantes, 2 Rue de la Houssinière, BP 9. Nantes Cedex 3, France. Quadlab, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5- 7, 1. Copenhagen, Denmark. Laboratoire G- Time, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 5. Avenue F. D. Roosevelt, 1. Brussels, Belgium. Steinmann Institut für Geologie Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Rheinische Friedrich- Wilhems- Universität, 5. Bonn, Germany. 9Institut Universitaire de France, 7. Paris, France. Creech, J. B., Baker, J. A., Handler, M. R., Lorand, J.- P., Storey, M., Wainwright, A. N., Luguet, A., Moynier, F., Bizzarro, M. Late accretion history of the terrestrial planets inferred from platinum stable isotopes. Geochem. Persp. Let. This research was supported by a Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden Grant to MH and JB and grants from the Danish National Research Foundation (grant number DNRF9. European Research Council (ERC Consolidator grant agreement 6. STARDUST2. ASTEROIDS) to M. B. F. M. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC Starting grant agreement 6. Pristine) as well as the financial support of the Univ. Earth. S Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cité (ANR- 1. LABX- 0. 02. 3 and ANR- 1. IDEX- 0. 00. 5- 0. ANR- Idex Sorbonne Paris Cité. Geochemical Perspectives Letters v. Received 7 September 2. Accepted 1. 9 October 2. Published 8 November 2. Copyright © 2. 01. European Association of Geochemistry. Keywords: platinum, stable isotopes, terrestrial planet accretion, late- veneer, magma oceantop. Abstract. Late accretion of chondritic material to differentiated planetary bodies is thought to have been common in the early solar system. However, the timing and scale of admixing this material to terrestrial planets are poorly constrained. Using platinum (Pt) stable isotope data in a range of solar system bodies, we show that Earth’s post- Archean mantle has chondritic 1. Pt/1. 94. Pt, consistent with addition of a chondritic late- veneer after core formation. Conversely, terrestrial Archean samples record non- chondritic, heavy, 1. Pt/1. 94. Pt, indicating preservation of early mantle components that escaped complete mixing with the late- veneer. These data suggest admixing of ≤5. Such effective mixing within Earth’s mantle by 3. Ga is most consistent with modern- style plate tectonics. Figures and Tables. Figure 1 Platinum stable isotopes vs. Pt concentrations in achondrite meteorite samples showing increasingly heavy Pt isotopic compositions corresponding with decreasing Pt concentrations, indicating that heavy Pt isotopes are concentrated in the silicate mantle during metal–silicate differentiation. The shaded field represents the mean and 2 sd of chondrites, as given in the text. Error bars on δ1. Pt are the 2 sd of combined measurements or the reproducibility of the method as determined by replicate digestions of similar samples, whichever is larger (Supplementary Information). Uncertainties in Pt concentration are negligible on this logarithmic scale. Iron meteorite samples have larger uncertainties in δ1. Pt owing to cosmogenic effects, which are discussed further in the Supplementary Information. A regression through the ureilite data gives a slope of –0. ALHA8. 11. 01, the slope is 0. Figure 2 Platinum stable isotope results for terrestrial and meteorite samples. Error bars on δ1. Pt for Ni. S digested samples are the 2 sd of combined replicates or the reproducibility of the method as determined by replicate digestions of similar samples, whichever is larger (Supplementary Information). Extended error bars illustrate the additional uncertainty arising from the potential presence of small amounts of analytical blank (further details are given in the Supplementary Information). The dashed vertical line and grey box represent the mean and 2 sd of chondrites as discussed in the text. For one Kaapvaal sample where the variability in replicate digestions exceeded the reproducibility of the technique (interpreted as reflecting real isotopic heterogeneity on the scale of these samples) all three replicates are shown enclosed in a dashed box, where the size of the box represents the 2 sd of the three replicates. Large uncertainties on iron meteorite samples are attributed to cosmic ray exposure effects, which are expected to shift δ1. Pt to more negative values; further discussion is given in the Supplementary Information. Figure 3 Model of the effect of addition of chondritic late- veneer on the abundance and isotopic composition of Pt in the mantle. The calculated mantle concentration of Pt from the addition of chondrite to the pre- late- veneer mantle. The vertical line represents the Pt concentration of primitive upper mantle (PUM; 7. Becker et al., 2. PUM, indicating the amount of late- veneer required to reproduce the Pt abundance of PUM. The Pt isotopic composition of the mantle resulting from mixing late- veneer with hypothetical pre- late- veneer mantle, with black and blue lines representing mixtures with initial pre- late- veneer mantle Pt concentrations of ≤0. Supplementary Information). Shaded boxes represent the composition of the post- Archean mantle and inferred composition of the Archean mantle sources of Isua and Kaapvaal (based on the range of values defined by the sample KBD4, which is taken to represent the most pristine pre- late- veneer signature). Note that the latter was not used to constrain the model, as Pt concentrations may not relate solely to depletion during core- formation. Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. View all figures and tables. Supplementary Figures and Tables. Figure S- 1 Demonstration of correction for blank Pt on δ1. Pt data for (a) mixtures of blank Pt from Ni. S digested blanks and IRMM- 0. Pt isotope standard (δ1. Pt = 0 ‰) and (b) the peridotite BC1 (δ1. Pt = - 0. 0. 9 ± 0. |
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